Skip to content

Lit Review: media and elections

Literature Review: How local media coverage of elections can help turn out more and better informed voters

Introduction

Media effects research clearly shows some level of correlation between media consumption and voter turnout. The premise of this literature review is that such findings can be used by media outlets to help shape their own campaign coverage, with the goal of improving issues knowledge among the general public and inspiring audiences members to vote in greater numbers.

The following review of scholarly work will start with research into media effects on audience behavior, especially related to political election coverage and voting patterns. A brief survey of the evolution of media effects concurrent with the development of new media platforms will also be presented.

The special role of local media will also be considered. Following a thread from credibility to the business viability of high-quality, issues-based news coverage, this section is especially relevant to media outlets that otherwise might be under financial pressures to deliver horse-race campaigns.

A review of literature correlating content, audience perception of media, and civic engagement will follow. This includes consideration of the younger voting demographic, along with studies that challenge traditional notions of the civic impact of political cynicism, and research into the role of polling in election coverage.

As this literature review is based largely on the assumption that quality news coverage engenders deeper audience understanding of political issues, definitions of and research into issues knowledge will be offered. The review also suggests potential for strategically timing different types of campaign coverage for maximum impact according to audiences’ decision-making patterns.

The literature review closes with consideration of audiences themselves, since all the media research in the world is meaningless without understanding the people for whom news is ostensibly designed and how they use it. This begins with an analysis of the timing of voting decisions and goes on to analyze some reasons that people disengage with election coverage. The review closes after the elections, so to speak, with research into improved voter turnout data.

Specific recommendations are offered for consideration about how media outlets may shift their approaches to election coverage to both meet business imperatives and help fulfill journalism’s potential contribution to democracy. Notes are also made on areas for further research that will help media find financial viability by answering this call for accountability to the public interest.

Literature Review

Media Effects

There is much research documenting the agenda-setting effect of media. Studies indicate that simply covering topics as news can introduce those topics into audience discourse, essentially getting people to talk about or care about what they otherwise may not be likely to. This effect was documented by Iyengar and Kinder’s 1987 book News That Matters, in which the authors presented evidence “that the media actually precedes public agenda” (Sparks 156). The book details an experiment in which people were exposed “to one of three different presentations of the news over a 4-day period. … (T)he researchers found that the experimental groups expressed greater concern about the issue that had been featured in their respective newscast.”

Level of media exposure is sometimes considered as a factor in media effects research, as it was for Fridkin, et all in their multi-methodological approach to understanding the impact of media coverage following the final presidential campaign debate of 2004. The group conducted a content analysis of television, internet and newspaper coverage in the immediate 24-hours following the debate (Fridkin et al.). They paired this with data from a public opinion survey and conducted an experiment tracking the “stability” of attitudes about the candidates among individuals who either were or were not exposed to the debate. A notable observation in the context of this literature review is that the extreme level of media saturation following a presidential debate gives very few citizens a chance to escape the common news agenda. In the case of the post-debate coverage, which these researchers concluded to be one-sided, favoring George W. Bush over John Kerry, more potential exists for media effects to influence public opinion. “Thus, theoretically, the coupling of intense media coverage and a one-sided story should influence citizens’ attitudes of the competing candidates” (31).

A case study of a 2004 poll by the Los Angeles Times illustrates the potential for a single news report to achieve high levels of exposure and, consequently, potentially influence public opinion. Hardy and Jamieson found that the specific wording of the poll and the subsequent report about it not only influenced the newspaper audience’s perceptions of the two presidential candidates at the time, George W. Bush and John Kerry. Coverage of the poll also swayed the conversation of the nation after being picked up by the Associated Press and carried nationwide (Hardy and Jamieson 731). Looking back on 2004, the authors analyzed data from a rolling cross-sectional survey from the National Annenberg Election Survey to document what others before them had long posited, “that poll results may prime character traits through attribute agenda-setting” (739-740). In this case, a small but “detectable change in the public’s assessment of both Bush’s stubbornness and his steady leadership” was found.

Conversely, consider the “spiral of silence” theory, which describes public opinion as an essential human trait, spanning societies and millennia, and exerting its own influence on both governments and individuals. In related research that spanned decades, Noelle-Neumann determined that humans’ social nature leads people to fear isolation, which is threatened by society in reaction to unpopular “opinions and behaviors” (Noelle-Neumann; Sparks 157). In response to popular public opinion, Noelle-Neumann asserts, citizens learn silence to avoid isolation. In her discussion of numerous tests of the spiral of silence theory by other researchers, Noelle-Neumann claims any failure of the theory has been tested without taking the tenor of the media into account. “Rather than refuting the theory of the spiral of silence, the ‘silent majority’ shows how strongly the mass media must be seen to influence the process of public opinion. The tenor of the media generates a threat of isolation.” (Noelle-Neumann 276)

Media Evolution

It’s also important to remember that media effects are the product of a dynamic relationship with the media themselves. A review of related scholarly studies reveals a landscape of effects that is evolving as rapidly as new media platforms are being developed and appropriated for news.

Prior to the emergence of the Internet as a dominant media force, Simon suggested that newspapers, rather than television, radio or magazines, are related to the likelihood that a person will vote. Tapping data from the ongoing National Election Study survey during the 1992 presidential campaign, Simon created “an index that measured two dimensions: exposure to the medium (whether a person had received any campaign information from the medium) and intensity of use (how much attention the person paid to campaign stories in that medium)” (Simon 28). He then analyzed voter turnout patterns, taking into account demographics, political variables and the subject’s level of personal dialogue about the campaign. He found that “New News outlets,” an umbrella under which he included radio and television talk shows, exposed more people to campaign events than otherwise may have learned about them. However, this exposure did not result in increased rates of voter turnout among those citizens. “Only adults who said they followed the campaign through newspapers were found to be more likely to vote” (30).

Druckman developed his methodology in pursuit of evidence that newspaper audiences commanded more political knowledge than television viewers due to a fundamental difference in the depth of coverage that each medium offered (Druckman 464-465). He cites previous studies that alternatively support the correlation between newspaper readership and issues knowledge or else complicate the question with the introduction of prior political knowledge as a factor to weigh. Conducting content analysis and exit polling about a single campaign in a single market, Druckman concludes that newspapers more than television at the time did hold a more influential, although potentially limited, role in informing the electorate.

Now fast-forward to the age of the internet, when Drew and Weaver’s fifth in a series of presidential election-year telephone surveys indicated that attention not to newspapers, but to television news, televised debates, and online news were the “important predictors, or at least correlates, of voter learning of candidate issue positions and voter interest in the election campaigns.” Their study also related to perceptions of voter apathy, studies of which are discussed below. Regarding political involvement among audiences, the research indicated a slightly waning influence of newspapers compared to previous years. The authors also expressed their own surprise at “the consistency of attention to radio news as a predictor, or at least a correlate, of campaign interest in the last four U.S. presidential elections” (38).

Local Media

While many research studies examine the effects of mass media, some consideration of local news outlets can also be found. Responding to their own personal observations of the 2000 presidential primary race in South Carolina, Vinson and Moore set out to discover if local and national coverage of the subject was, indeed, as divergent as it had seemed to them — and if so, what implications that held for local and national audiences, respectively. The ensuing content analysis created a basis for comparison among local and national media coverage and campaign communications by and on behalf of the candidates themselves. The researchers found a stark disconnect between what the campaigns versus media emphasized in the race (Vinson and Moore 397), but also between what local and national media conveyed (401). They interpreted that local reporters, by incorporating local contacts and their own knowledge and understanding of the state into their stories, more accurately reflected the reality of the campaign for residents where the campaign was actually taking place. Local reporters correctly predicted the lack of impact the cancellation of the Democratic primary would have on crossover votes and “provided a somewhat more accurate account of the negative campaigning.” Vinson and Moore also found a “significant difference between the two levels of media in their coverage of character. Most of the character coverage … occurred in the local press. … It did not even make the top 10 issues for the national media.”

Extending their study to exit polls in both South Carolina and Michigan, where the Republican primary was conducted just three days later, Vinson and Moore found what they presented as evidence of this divergent coverage’s impact on voter behavior. Taking other factors into account, they conclude that Michigan voters, basing their ballot decisions largely on national media coverage, came away from the South Carolina primary with a very different perspective than their counterparts in South Carolina, who had more access to local coverage (406). The authors also opine that national coverage of locally conducted campaigns, built primarily on first impressions and borrowed press frames, results in reporting that is not completely inaccurate, but also certainly not complete.

Newhagen and Nass also touch on some differences between mass and local media in their scholarly review and exploration of credibility. The authors arrive at a negative relationship between distance and credibility, in which local news outlets, being closer to their readers, enjoy comparatively more credibility with local audiences than mass media, who have to overcome both perceived and physical distance between the institutions and their readers in any given locality (279).

Despite this perception of credibility among local news sources, some critics accuse local television news of being no more than a “vast wasteland” based on content analyses that reveal hyperfocus “on crime, murder, car chases, and mayhem, particularly in lead stories” (Belt and Just 194). After a five-year content analysis of local news in 50 markets, in which Belt and Just examine the relationship between content sophistication and business viability, the two suggest that true credibility actually can — and should — be earned. “We come to the surprising conclusion that quality is not merely good practice but good for the bottom line” (195). The authors do not suggest that stepping up the quality and relevance of local news is without its challenges; rather they maintain that such investment is worthwhile, for the sake of getting and keeping the public’s interest in the news, fulfilling the basic function of journalism in society, and at the same time achieving economic success (209).

Content and Perception

Essential to exploring the sophistication of election news is the ways different types of news influence audience decisions about how — and even if — to vote. Many studies, in fact, define civic engagement as a dependent variable influenced at least in part by news frames and news content. Following common concerns among scholars that negativism discourages political participation (Pinkleton and Austin 332), several studies in the 1990s and beyond have begun to challenge — or at least complicate — that notion.

The population segment long the subject of apathy discussions is young people. Since 18-year-olds were given the right to vote in 1971, 18- to 24-year-olds have been the electoral cohort least likely to exercise that right (319). Administering a paper-and-pencil survey to 420 college students, Pinkleton and Austin attempted to dissect the age group’s media use in order to understand their low levels of public affairs involvement. The authors’ expectation that cynicism positively correlated with apathy was confirmed, but to a lesser extent than what had been suggested by researchers before them (331). Pinkleton and Austin concluded that cynicism may have a short-term negative impact on news media use and long-term damaging relationship with political efficacy, but that in itself cynicism does not diminish political participation in young people. The study also indicated that, contrary to popular opinion, apathy was not related to negative campaigns. “If cynicism affects negativism, but negativism does not affect apathy (and cynicism affects apathy only slightly), scholars will need to look beyond the convenient excuse of frustration with media, campaigns, and institutions to explain nonparticipation among young citizens” (332).

These findings are backed up somewhat by de Vreese, who details the mixed methodologies and results of cynicism studies in his detailed review of “strategy” and “game frame” or “horse-race” definitions and analyses (284-287). Attempting to refine these definitions, along with Capella and Jamieson’s entire “spiral of cynicism” theory, de Vreese determined based on his two-wave panel survey that the relationship of strategic news and audience cynicism is a matter of degrees. The study “only partially confirms that strategic news … does indeed fuel cynicism about politics.” (293) He found that relationship to be dependent on the level of strategy present in the news — implying that press frames are not always black and white, but can be hybrids of varying ratios. “In the context where strategy news was relatively less present, exposure to news in fact contributed to a decrease in the level of cynicism. This finding calls for a reconsideration of the spiral of cynicism hypothesis” (293).

de Vreese furthermore suggests that “the positive relationship between political sophistication and cynicism” reported in his and others’ findings could mean that cynicism is not a sentiment to be avoided, but instead is “perhaps little more than an indication of an ‘interested and critical citizenry’” (294).

Polls and Horse Races 

A topic that can scarcely be avoided when surveying the impacts of horse-race election coverage is political polling. “As early as 1984, Lang and Lang suggested that poll results can reinforce majority opinion, a process akin to Noelle-Neumann’s ‘spiral of silence’” (Hardy and Jamieson 725). What some scholars say has changed in recent years, however, is how polls are reported by the press.

Frankovic maintained that very little about poll methodology changed in 2004, although more individual state polling, particularly in “battleground” states, and more Internet polling through private organizations started taking place around 2000 and 2004 (Frankovic 682). Concerned that starting in 2004, however, the public was subjected to as many debates about the polls as they were poll results, Frankovic took a closer narrative look at polling coverage, including frequency of reports about polls, use of polls in political campaigns, an increased level of scrutiny into polling methods, and finally criticism of the polls. She concluded that, while polls still hold value as “a mirror to let the public understand itself…. polls also provide attention for the organization doing them” (694). This, along with Frankovic’s observation that pollsters themselves in 2004 were often attacked by partisans, might eventually undermine journalists’ tradition of relying on polls as the “expert” on public opinion, Frankovic predicts. But she ends with the salvo that, “at least for now, journalists (and politicians) still need to believe in the ‘precision’ of polls to keep doing their jobs” (695).

Patterson is less forgiving in his article, which sets out to “show that journalists continue to craft superficial images tied to the candidates’ support in the polls and … construct election narratives rooted in the candidates’ positions in the race” (716). He calls it “feeding the horses,” and claims that polls keep press frames centered on the game angle of election coverage, to the detriment of issues coverage and ultimately to the detriment of the American public. “The policy issue that Americans said they cared the most about in 2004 — the economy — received less than 5 percent of the total coverage” that year (Patterson 719).

Patterson also took aim at the concept of precision polling, which Frankovic merely hinted at as an elusive ideal. Patterson wrote that a combination of misunderstanding margin of error in poll reporting and misinterpreting small movements in polls as meaningful trends leads journalists to misrepresent what is otherwise a useful tool, ultimately serving to confuse the public it is trying to inform (719). “Paradoxically, surveys heighten journalists’ attention to the candidates, rather than to the voters themselves” (720). Patterson maintained that poll-driven stories are ultimately distortions of reality that promote negative public opinion at the expense of more valuable issues education.

Issues Knowledge

Related to the issue of content, credibility and audience perceptions of media discussed above, D’Angelo and Lombard studied the impact on issues knowledge of what they call “conduit, strategy and accountability” press frames (D’Angelo and Lombard). They borrowed from cognitive science (8-13) in constructing the theory behind their between-subjects experiment in which subjects were given pre-stimulus and post-stimulus questionnaires, concluding that only “participants exposed to the strategy frame” associated the press with negativity. They drew what they called “disturbing conclusions” from this: “In particular, it seems that individuals in our study have internalized the antagonistic relationship between candidates and the press corps” (25). This is a much more dramatic view than that taken by de Vreese and even Pinkleton and Austin. D’Angelo and Lombard cited other research to propose that these media perceptions matter not only for the sake of a media’s brand, but also because a media’s credibility, or lack thereof, in part determines the potential “knowledge gain” of its audience (2).

But knowledge, too, can be evaluated in different ways, according to Hollander in his study on recognition and recall from late-night entertainment programs (Hollander). “Whether viewers of entertainment-based programs learn about public affairs is reminiscent of earlier concerns about the informative power of television news as compared to print sources, most often newspapers” (403). Based on his study of data from the 2004 Political Communications Study by the Pew Center for the People and the Press, Hollander said that “what viewers glean from such programs may be a function of many factors: the cognitive effort expended, political interest and sophistication, and exactly what kind of knowledge is tapped in surveys or questionnaires” (403). He argued that late-night shows such as Jay Leno or The Daily Show promote political recognition more than recall, and that this is a valid but far from complete contribution to issues knowledge, especially for younger viewers. “(H)ow competent it leaves them to participate in a meaningful manner remains an open question,” he concluded (412).

Miller and Orr, on the other hand, argued for a new way to even measure political knowledge, much less evaluate it. They proposed eliminating the “Don’t Know” response option from political knowledge questionnaires in order to eliminate non-random psychological factors such as confidence from the survey pool. They found that self-reported political knowledge estimations were higher in the absence of the “DK” (stands for “Don’t Know”) response, the reason being that some people, despite less actual knowledge, are more inclined than others to either think they do know something, or guess (769). The researchers administered a set of three random sample web surveys to test their hypothesis, but without “fanfare” announcing the absence of the DK option. They found that eliminating the option did indeed yield higher knowledge estimates, “both on a per-item and aggregate basis for political and general knowledge” (775).

Whether higher knowledge estimations are a good thing depends on “whether one values validity over reliability … (and) whether one believes that DK responses actually conceal partial knowledge.” Miller and Orr point out that other researchers have argued not giving respondents an way to opt out of a question they do not know the answer to encourages blind guessing, which in turn reduces reliability (776). The authors argue, “This loss in reliability comes with an associated gain in validity, however, since unsystematic variance stemming from blind guessing replaces systematic variance based on the propensity to guess.” They also point out the option to encourage, rather than omit, the DK option in order to reduce the “trade-off” between reliability and validity.

Timing of Voting Decisions

Aside from the question of measuring political knowledge is the timing of when that knowledge gels into a political decision. Bowen turned the cloudy debate about the impact of political advertising on its head with his study of when voters choose whom to vote for. He approached his study into the time of voting decision from the perspective of advertising. Based on research before him, Bowen concluded that early deciders partake of political communications, but mostly to “reinforce existing preferences” (666). Late-deciders may be less invested in the campaigns, but also may be more persuadable and less savvy about political news. Voters who decided during the campaign, research showed, tended to make the most use of the greatest range of political communications (667).

Bowen’s post-election survey after a senate race in Washington state showed roughly 23 percent of voters decided early, 22 percent decided in the middle of the campaign, 25 percent decided late, and almost 31 percent made up their minds during the primary. “General news accounts” were cited as the overall most helpful information to voters, followed by political advertising (671).

In his study, “negative (advertising) spots were highly recalled but worked against their sponsors,” and media coverage of such spots were seen to be very effective in “deflecting their influence” (674). Bowen notes that media coverage is not as likely for down-ticket races such as auditors, commissioners, and the like. He extrapolates that last-minute negative ads, therefore, may be more effective in those cases where and when “there is no opportunity for rebuttal” (674).

Voter Turnout

A more extreme but hardly uncommon case of absent media coverage is presented by Lipsitz and Teigen, who studied “orphan counties.” The authors approximated that 33 million Americans live in counties that aren’t served by their local media, due to incongruities between media markets and state boundaries (178). Not only did these potential voters not receive election information to help them choose their own political representation in the midterm election studied; they actually were exposed to campaign coverage that was irrelevant to their districts. The latter, the authors found, was the most damaging to the audience’s likelihood to become civically engaged.

Lipsitz and Teigen drew considerable worry from this study on the part of candidates in states with orphan counties, given the hurdles identified in the study to both reach these voters and mobilize them to the polls. The authors also express concern for “those who believe that spending campaign dollars will spur citizens to vote” (195).

Some residents of orphan counties and the younger demographic discussed earlier are certainly not the only Americans who do not exercise their right to vote. Yet comparisons of self-reported voter turnout and actual ballot numbers have frequently shown that individuals report to the American National Election Study that they voted, when in fact they did not (Duff et al. 67-68). The NES began experimenting with survey questions, in addition to its introductory script that acknowledged socially acceptable reasons for not voting, in 2000 and 2002. Duff et al sought to learn more from the 2002 experiment, which “randomly assigned half its respondents to the new version of the turnout question and half to the traditional version” (68). The researchers concluded from their analysis of the survey data that the new question did reduce over-reporting by approximately 8 percent.

The authors went on to access what data they could from the NES survey to uncover potential biases in the traditional or new turnout questions. They were struck by the extent to which they found the traditional turnout question had masked the actually low voter turnout rates of the poorest, least knowledgeable and least politically effective individuals. They determined that the new turnout question revealed these social trends in voter turnout in a way the previous question never could have.

A further observation the authors draw from their analysis is that the “social desirability effect is very deep in some spots and very shallow in others” (88). They conclude that the new survey question did not do well in improving accuracy “where the sense of social desirability runs deep.”

Conclusion

The most important lesson to be learned from this review of election-related research spanning decades — especially with the goal of improving journalism’s impact going forward — is that things change. They always have, and they will continue to do so. New institutional systems and reporting practices developed today, therefore, will have to adapt tomorrow in order to stay current and stay ahead of the curve of media and political evolution. Journalists and media managers would do well to build models that are structurally nimble in order to respond most effectively to both business and editorial imperatives. Frequent and regular surveys of a media’s own efficacy and its relationship with its subjects, supporting businesses, and audiences would also be wise to help journalism anticipate and even direct some of this inevitable change, rather than remain stuck in the less effective emergency-mode of having to catch up.

The preponderance of research into presidential campaigns is also notable in this review — although not surprising and certainly not without explanation. The scope of many research studies is no doubt limited in terms of both finances and human resources. Nonetheless, more research into statewide, local and down-ticket elections would be helpful for media, advertisers and audiences alike. Although “local” media outlets by their nature only serve a relatively small number of individuals and businesses, collectively their numbers are great and offer data samples sizable enough to detect meaningful trends. Some of the literature reviewed here also points to local media as holding the best hope for improved service in the public interest. More navigational notes would be helpful in creating a new roadmap to success for smaller media ventures.

That said, the countless configurations of media effects by media type, size, region, audience demographic and infinite other factors can only take a media outlet so far. Outside studies are helpful, but should not be considered a replacement for a newsroom’s own understanding of its audience — in all the shades, shapes and sizes of their perceptions, needs, levels of political efficacy and reasons for engaging (or not) with their community. As the newer trend of community outreach by media continues to evolve, it would be interesting for future researchers to measure and describe the ways these new practices are helping to push newsrooms and journalists along their own evolutionary path.

This literature review assessed the field of election coverage with the express goal of improving editorial content as a way to increase public civic participation. Studies such as Bowen’s and even Lipsitz and Teigen’s, written more from the perspective of advertisers than editors, can nonetheless be useful for informing editorial decisions. Similarly, Noelle-Neumann “spiral of silence” theory of public opinion is equally applicable to newsrooms as it is to audiences. As Belt and Just intimate (206), even newsrooms are not immune from their own spirals of silence. Media managers would do well build checks against such social pressures into the systems they create in order to maintain an atmosphere open to the type of innovation that will be needed to keep journalism relevant in an ever-changing society.


Bibliography

Belt, T. L., & Just, M. R. (2008). The Local News Story: Is Quality a Choice? [Article]. Political Communication, 25(2), 194-215. doi: 10.1080/10584600801985714

Bowen, L. (1994). TIME OF VOTING DECISION AND USE OF POLITICAL ADVERTISING: THE SLADE GORTON- BROCK ADAMS SENATORIAL CAMPAIGN. [Article]. Journalism Quarterly, 71(3), 665-675.

Capella & Jamieson. “Ch. 3: Framing the News.” from Spiral of Cynicism. Oxford University Press, 1997.

D’Angelo, P., & Lombard, M. (2008). The Power of the Press: The Effects of Press Frames in Political Campaign News on Media Perceptions. [Article]. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 16(1), 1-32. doi: 10.1080/15456870701647391

de Vreese, C. H. (2005). The Spiral of Cynicism Reconsidered. [Article]. European Journal of Communication, 20(3), 283-301.

Deufel, B. J., & Kedar, O. (2010). Race And Turnout In U.S. Elections Exposing Hidden Effects. [Article]. Public Opinion Quarterly, 74(2), 286-318.

Drew, D., & Weaver, D. (2006). VOTER LEARNING IN THE 2004 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION: DID THE MEDIA MATTER? [Article]. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83(1), 25-42.

Druckman, J. N. (2005). Media Matter: How Newspapers and Television News Cover Campaigns and Influence Voters. [Article]. Political Communication, 22(4), 463-481. doi: 10.1080/10584600500311394

Duff, B., Hanmer, M. J., Park, W.-H., & White, I. K. (2007). GOOD EXCUSES: UNDERSTANDING WHO VOTES WITH AN IMPROVED TURNOUT QUESTION. [Article]. Public Opinion Quarterly, 71(1), 67-90.

Frankovic, K. A. (2005). REPORTING “THE POLLS” IN 2004. [Article]. Public Opinion Quarterly, 69(5), 682-697. doi: 10.1093/poq/nfi066

Freedman, E., & Fico, F. (2004). WHITHER THE EXPERTS? NEWSPAPER USE OF HORSE RACE AND ISSUE EXPERTS IN COVERAGE OF OPEN GOVERNORS’ RACES IN 2002. [Article]. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(3), 498-510.

Fridkin, K. L., Kenney, P. J., Gershon, S. A., & Woodall, G. S. (2008). Spinning Debates: The Impact of the News Media’s Coverage of the Final 2004 Presidential Debate. [Article]. International Journal of Press/Politics, 13(1), 29-51. doi: 10.1177/1940161207312677

Han, G. (2008). New Media Use, Sociodemographics, and Voter Turnout in the 2000 Presidential Election. [Article]. Mass Communication & Society, 11(1), 62-81. doi: 10.1080/15205430701587644

Hansen, G. J., & Benoit, W. L. (2007). Communication Forms as Predictors of Issue Knowledge in Presidential Campaigns: A Meta-Analytic Assessment. [Article]. Mass Communication & Society, 10(2), 189-210. doi: 10.1080/15205430701265711

Hardy, B. W., & Jamieson, K. H. (2005). CAN A POLL AFFECT PERCEPTION OF CANDIDATE TRAITS? [Article]. Public Opinion Quarterly, 69(5), 725-743. doi: 10.1093/poq/nfi067

Hardy, B. W., & Scheufele, D. A. (2009). Presidential Campaign Dynamics and the Ebb and Flow of Talk as a Moderator: Media Exposure, Knowledge, and Political Discussion. [Article]. Communication Theory (10503293), 19(1), 89-101. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2885.2008.01334.x

Hollander, B. A. (2005). Late-Night Learning: Do Entertainment Programs Increase Political Campaign Knowledge for Young Viewers? [Article]. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49(4), 402-415. doi: 10.1207/s15506878jobem4904_3

Irwin, G. A., & Van Holsteyn, J. J. M. (2002). ACCORDING TO THE POLLS. [Article]. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66(1), 92-104.

Kellner, D. (2005). The Media and Election 2004. [Article]. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 22(2), 178-186.

Lipsitz, K., & Teigen, J. M. (2010). Orphan Counties and the Effect of Irrelevant Information on Turnout in Statewide Races. [Article]. Political Communication, 27(2), 178-198. doi: 10.1080/10584601003709399

Miller, M. K., & Orr, S. K. (2008). EXPERIMENTING WITH A “THIRD WAY” IN POLITICAL KNOWLEDGE ESTIMATION. [Article]. Public Opinion Quarterly, 72(4), 768-780.

Newhagen, J., & Nass, C. (1989). Differential Criteria for Evaluating Credibility of Newspapers and TV News. [Article]. Journalism Quarterly, 66(2), 277-284.

Noelle-Neumann, E. (1991). The Theory of Public Opinion: The Concept of the Spiral of Silence. [Article]. Communication Yearbook, 14, 256-287.

Patterson, T. E. (2005). OF POLLS, MOUNTAINS: U.S. JOURNALISTS AND THEIR USE OF ELECTION SURVEYS. [Article]. Public Opinion Quarterly, 69(5), 716-724. doi: 10.1093/poq/nfi065

Pinkleton, B. E., & Austin, E. W. (2004). Media Perceptions and Public Affairs Apathy in the Politically Inexperienced. [Article]. Mass Communication & Society, 7(3), 319-337.

Simon, J. (1996). Media use and voter turnout in a presidential election. [Article]. Newspaper Research Journal, 17(1/2), 25-34.

Sparks, Glenn G. Chapter 9 “The Effects of News and Political Content,” from Media Effects Research (2002) pp. 151-167, chapter 9.

Tien-Tsung, L., & Lu, W. (2008). How Newspaper Readership Affects Political Participation. [Article]. Newspaper Research Journal, 29(3), 8-23.

Vinson, C. D., & Moore, W. V. (2007). The Campaign Disconnect: Media Coverage of the 2000 South Carolina Presidential Primary. [Article]. Political Communication, 24(4), 393-413. doi: 10.1080/10584600701641540

2 thoughts on “Lit Review: media and elections”

  1. I have been studying the effectiveness of media coverage and elections especially voter education. I agree with the timing of voter decisions and final candidate policy trends that can totally change the voter turnout eg. USA 2016 Elections.

  2. Therefore, administration of the drug is payable if the drug would have been coated if the doctor purchased it. If the ovum isn’t fertilised and doesn’t implant, this layer is shed during menstruation. Systematic review: why sources of heterogeneity in meta-evaluation must be investigated prostate juicing ruined milk [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/purchase-eulexin-online/]cheap eulexin 250 mg free shipping[/url]. Administerfiuid resuscitation as ordered in response to physicalfindings; proceed monitoringfiuid standing. The theoretical and practical wrestle in opposition to unity-via-domination or unity-throughincorporation sarcastically not solely undermines the justifica-tions for patriarchy, colonialism, humanism, positivism, essentialism, scient-ism, and other unlamented -isms, however all claims for an natural or pure standpoint.
    The affected gene is located on one of the chromosomes numbered 1-22, that are generally known as autosomes. T3 Tumour with direct invasion into any of the next; lung, brachiocephalic vein, superior vena cava, phrenic nerve, chest wall, or extrapericardial pulmonary artery or vein. If there has been no native recur- myelosuppressants and for 3 months rence or metastasis, price on residuals medicine 123 [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/order-online-arava-cheap/]arava 10 mg amex[/url]. He turned steadily weaker postanoxic encephalopathy is made from the and known as for assist, but soon was so weak that he history of the preliminary insult and by recognizing grew to become apneic. A posterior vitreous detachment that causes a retinal tear may cause avulsion of a retinal vessel. Decision Maximum certification пїЅ 1 12 months Page a hundred ninety of 260 Recommend to certify if: As the health worker, you imagine: пїЅ Nature and severity of the underlying condition does not intervene with safe driving. In exceptional cases, underneath careful monitoring Give desferrioxamine 60 mg/kg by intravenous infusion over 24 hours, utilizing the patientпїЅs subcutaneous infusion pump with the butterfly inserted into the drip tubing. Berezin, Joshua Bostwick, Jolene Ahmed, Iqbal Aniwattanapong, Daruj Balachandran, Silpa Bergot, Cecile Botros, Mousa Ahmed, Saad Annamalai, Aniyizhai Balasuriya, Lilanthi Berk, Elizabeth Boudreaux, Edwin Ahmed, Saeed Annibali, Christine A erectile dysfunction operations [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/order-viagra-vigour-online-in-usa/]viagra vigour 800 mg discount otc[/url]. Peripheral optic cup in a temporal and inferior location (with injury to the optic nerve fibers on this space). Bovine cough: Cough with lack of its explosive nature, early morning for many years.
    Characteristics Research functions: genetics research and makes use of: (evolution and systematics, gene mapping [quite a few polymorphisms]). This is the case in Finland interventions and higher anaesthetics, have made this (the place the share of same-day surgery has increased significantly growth possible. Squamous cell carcinoma (1) Squamous cell carcinoma originates from stratified squamous epithelium of, for instance, the skin, mouth, esophagus, and vagina, in addition to from areas of squaВ­ mous metaplasia, as in the bronchi or the squamocolumnarjunction of the uterВ­ ine cervix acne 19 years old [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/buy-cheap-differin-online/]15 gr differin purchase with visa[/url]. The Ticket to Work the Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999, revised in 2007, will increase selections for people with disabilities to acquire rehabilitation and vocational services while eradicating barriers that require a selection between healthcare coverage and earning cash. Migrants who move from the countryside to the outskirts of cities can carry the vectors of their private results and infest new residential areas. Opioid analgesics for pain administration the long run use of opioid analgesics is generally not accepted as an acceptable approach for chronic musculoskeletal pain management and therefore must be questioned. The inverted face inver- of schematic faces and different advanced objects in schizophrenia. Or, for example, a group of research evaluating one type of intervention might be divided into subgroups of studies with distinct populations, such as youngsters and adults hiv infection rate in kenya [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/order-online-valtrex-no-rx/]valtrex 500 mg[/url]. Grouplo5 internaljugularveinorintothethoracicductor cated caudal to the tracheal bifurcation. The rehabilitation of face recognition impair- the Oxford Handbook of Face Perception.
    Primary dysmenorrhea is menstrual ache without any identifiable natural pathology and customarily first happens in women younger than 20. Define the following phrases in relation to the patient and doctor-patient relationship: “beneficence,” “nonmaleficence,” and “respect for autonomy. Good medical outcomes following solid immobilization are reported, with comparable outcomes to operative administration [88,89] arrhythmia jobs [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/buy-online-cardizem-cheap/]discount cardizem 60 mg mastercard[/url]. Heart of the matter Cardiovascular and respiratory results include: delicate bradycardia hypotension hypoventilation spasm of the larynx (voice box) and bronchi decreased fee of breathing extreme respiratory despair. In another affected person, milk concentrations 22 hours after a dose of 325 mg had been 16 ng/mL, whereas maternal blood ranges were fifty two ng/mL, a milk:plasma ratio of zero. Larger or repeat doses may be required for infants whose moms are consuming anticonvulsants or oral anticoagulants (3,11). For example, in southern Nepal, to achieve those not adequately covered by fortification alone maternal mortality rates exceeded 600/one hundred,000 live births in 1994 1Summarized from reference fifty nine. Haptens have been used to boost immune responses to antigens; take a look at for allergic contact dermatitis and inflammatory eight bowel disease; and induce autoimmune responses, viral wart regression and antitumor immunity blood pressure chart jnc [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/buy-cheap-norvasc-online/]norvasc 5 mg order without a prescription[/url]. Analgesia will be required to relive the pain of induced contractions and the mom will require close remark throughout the whole procedure. The youngster with dysmorphic options and birth defects 415 (a) Rooting reflex (b) Palmer and (c) Placing and (d) Asymmetric (e) Moro reflex plantar grasp stepping reflexes tonic neck reflex Stroke the cheek Gently press your Hold the child With the infant lying With the infant mendacity down elevate his head close to the angle of the finger within the palm erect and draw the down flip his head together with your hand underneath the occiput.
    The activation of C3 and the downstream participation of C5, C6, C7, C8, and C9 is identical for both pathways, and the biologic actions of opsonization, recruitment of inflammatory cells, mast cell degranulation, and cell lysis are equivalent for each pathways. For instance it is properly described that children still expertise domestically devised protocols and, usually, particular person anaesthetic preference. The extraction is completed as an out-patient process underneath common or regional anesthesia fungus edh [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/buy-cheap-lamisil-online/]buy lamisil 250 mg line[/url]. Typical signs include pruritus, pain stage) are restricted to the portal tracts with options in the best upper abdominal quadrant, fatigue, weight together with portal oedema, gentle portal hepatitis, a non- loss, and episodes of fever and chills, which are reported destructive cholangitis with in?ltration of lymphocytes in a variable variety of sufferers [77]. Pharmacotherapeutics Because alpha-adrenergic blockers trigger smooth muscle tissue to relax and blood vessels to dilate, they increase local blood flow to the pores and skin and different organs and reduce blood stress. Patch power Some forms of hormonal contraceptives are available in a transdermal patch form. This is adopted by diffuse hemorrhages as clotting components are removed and the coag ulation course of is impaired. After the hilar plate is lowered to show the proper and left portal pedicles, the portal inflow to both the best and left caudate segments may be identified, ligated and divided infantile spasms 4 year old [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/buy-nimotop-online/]30 mg nimotop buy with visa[/url]. Studies with rodent models have demonstrated male, female, and sex-impartial effects in the instant offspring of females exposed during pregnancy. The pational exposure to hydrocarbons and danger of acute benzene metabolite, hydroquinone, selectively induces lymphocytic leukemia in ofspring.
    This is a good stack for newbies because it s not too robust however may even offer you crazy results. Overt thyroid dysfunction is recognised today as frequent in the common population, with a prevalence of thyrotoxicosis or hypothyroidism of a minimum of 2% in females and 0. Chemotherapy can lower the Compression stockings and drugs manufacturing of those cells, and after they to thin the blood are also used for fall too low we’re at risk for spontaneous prevention erectile dysfunction other names [url=http://www.velcrowripper.com/therapy/purchase-extra-super-levitra-online-in-usa/]extra super levitra 100 mg order otc[/url]. States must also require that county departments of psychological well being pay the native corrections department for the therapy prices of all significantly mentally sick jail inmates. The evaluation of a novel conductometric system for the analysis of cystic fibrosis.

  3. Neither arterial blood gasoline monitoring nor pulse oximetry is useful in determining when endotracheal intubation is required. No impact on the mandible can be anticipated, but restraint of mandibular growth along with restraint of maxillary growth is rarely noticed, and some studies have found a small improvement in mandibular development and chin prominence during headgear remedy. Discharge of Patients Patients shouldn’t be discharged with out settlement of supervising oncologist or haematologist erectile dysfunction treatment nj [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/order-cheap-levitra-oral-jelly/]20 mg levitra oral jelly order fast delivery[/url]. Also, medical employees of gliomas instead it determined the next has contact with numerous agents, threat of meningiomas (126). For example, the incidence of any or serious antagonistic occasions was not reported in lots of trials.
    Hexosamine and polyol pathways, activation of protein kinase C and so forth) have been proposed to elucidate the mechanism by which hyperglycemia leads to vascular and other issues in sufferers. The immunoglobulin Selective IgA defciency is defned as serum IgA levels less nadir at 6 months of age is accentuated, with immunoglobu than 10 mg/dL with normal levels of different immunoglobulins. The chi-squared distribution can have totally different shapes, relying on the scale (what number of rows and columns) of the contingency table insomnia red wine [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/purchase-cheap-sominex-no-rx/]sominex 25 mg cheap with amex[/url]. Biologicals, except when administered as an in-affected person, when clinically indicated and hospitalization warranted. Endothelium-dependent dilation within the systemic arteries of as- dergoing treatment with erythropoietin for six months demon- ymptomatic topics relates to coronary threat factors and their inter- strated a protective function of the agent towards atherosclerosis motion. The role of environmental exposures as threat components Concentrations in Greens Bayou for fatty liver illness just isn’t well-known. At least two mechanisms are responsible for the long-term upkeep of reminiscence T cell populations: fixed turnover (antigen-impartial homeostatic proliferation) and the intrinsic ability of reminiscence T cells to survive in a comparatively resting state for an extended period (19,43,60–63⇓⇓⇓⇓⇓). For example, if a cook is attempting to keep away from eggs, dairy merchandise and peanuts, then the cooking surfaces and utensils must have no eggs, no butter and no peanut oil medications help dog sleep night [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/order-duricef-no-rx/]duricef 250 mg otc[/url]. Normally, the abductors should be sturdy sufficient to permit the pelvis to remain level when a foot is lifted off the bottom. A second group of fifty patients with lowgrade tumors have been treated with resection alone versus resection with radiation therapy. Mix completely an equal quantity (three to 10 fil) of and microwave at full energy (650 W) for 1 min. Vaginal suppositories are used twice a day; the gel is used as soon as a day in the morning. Thus, when applied to quantitative evaluation of infant mind images, extra accuracy can be achieved menopause medication [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/order-premarin/]premarin 0.625 mg trusted[/url]. The diag pulmonary in?ltrates and hypoxemia within 72 h of nosis must be con?rmed by transbronchial biopsy, and transplantation, however the severity is variable. The initial Japanese doctrine additionally the reasons for this aren’t totally clear, however 3 beneficial routine resection of the spleen the adverse anatomical options of the area 4 and distal pancreas during whole gastrectomy, in probably play a role. A7401 Esuberaprost Potassium Tablets and Esuberaprost Sodium Tablets in Healthy Subjects/K. Lancet 2000; cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive routine of amlodipine 356:359пїЅ365. Infection with partial DiGeorge syndrome: clinical experience and mobile immunity antiviral foam [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/buy-cheap-nemasole-online-no-rx/]nemasole 100 mg purchase without prescription[/url]. Postoperatively, subjects with detrusor overactivity had more voiding symptoms than those without detrusor overactivity. A small proportion of the tracer can move to second-tier nodes, whatever the particle measurement, and we’ve discovered this attribute to correlate immediately with the speed of lymphfiow in lymphatic accumulating vessels (22). A meta?evaluation suggested a large impact dimension for tranylcypromine within the absence of any risk of switching. Clinical findings • Recognize the clinical options of absent pulmonary valve syndrome 6. The babyпїЅs look is usually extra important than the chief grievance; at all times look at the kid and take heed to the parent medicine 257 [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/purchase-cheap-frumil-no-rx/]cheap frumil 5mg fast delivery[/url]. A person granted individual clinical privileges to diagnose and treat illnesses and conditions, including physicians, dentists, doctor assistants, nurse practitioners, podiatrists, optometrists, and scientific psychologists. It may take a few seconds for the misalignment to happen, so the examiner shouldn’t hurry the take a look at.
    With continued treatments, he has the hope for a future: a job maybe, and possibly even a household of his personal. This represents an important departure from earlier illnesses couldn’t be included within the current analysis be- estimates based on illness phenotypes alone, which gener- explanation for lack of knowledge on mutation charges. The objective of this examine was to find out if urinary biomarkers of Durango State, Durango, Mexico erectile dysfunction jet lag [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/buy-online-kamagra-effervescent-cheap/]kamagra effervescent 100 mg purchase amex[/url]. We acknowledge that the minimize- Malignant lesions might have pressing surgical intervention off of 4cm just isn’t based on good evidence from scientific and different therapies, and delay might trigger harm. Hereditary Renal Adysplasia Hereditary Renal Adysplasia is a disorder during which one kidney is absent and the opposite is very small and malformed. Tandem mass spectrometric analysis for amino, organic, and fatty acid issues in newborn dried blood spots: a two-12 months abstract from the New England Newborn Screening Program. Absorptionthe time to succeed in Cmax (Tmax) following ribociclib administration was between 1 and four hours. Dobson put ahead the idea that the diabetes was a systemic disease, somewhat than one of many kidneys diet for gastritis and duodenitis [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/purchase-online-ranitidine-cheap/]discount 300 mg ranitidine otc[/url]. Secondary bacterial an infection results in bronchitis, tracheitis, atelectasis and interstitial pneumonia. Gelbert L, Thliveris A, Carlson M, Otterud B acid and acid/alkaline publicity, and duo- K, Tabor E (eds), Churchill Livingstone: Cloning and characterization of a novel (1993). Alois Alzheimer (left) and his first patient diagnosed with Alzheimer’s illness, Augusta Deter (proper). The risk of prion-mediated illness through ment of Clotting Factor Concentrates reviews plasma-derived merchandise exists. Practise stressing the next Latin anatomical terms: lamД­na arcus vertebrae (plate of vertebral arch), forДЃmales rotundum (round opening), vagД«na processus styloidД›i (sheath of awl-shaped appendix), tuberosД­tas pterygoidД›a (pterygoid tuberosity), palДЃtum osseum (bony palate), ligamentum popliteum oblД«quum (oblique popliteal ligament), cavД­tas oris propria (correct oral cavity), atrium meДЃtus medii (atrium center meatus), cartilДЃgo thyroidД›a (thyroid cartilage), vesД«ca urinaria (bladder), extremД­tas inferior (decrease extremity) blood pressure drops after exercise [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/order-hydrochlorothiazide-online/]hydrochlorothiazide 12.5 mg discount visa[/url]. Lancet patients with acute myocardial infarc- 60:333–343, 2000 2:1221–1224, 1975 tion. During the annual visit, scientific acquired inhibitors in which any of the information is recorded on a standardized coagulation proteins is missing, lowered, or knowledge collection kind (annual go to form). The look is usually that of a reasonably to poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma forming abortive tubular constructions or cell clusters and exhibiting an aggressive, deeply infiltrative development sample (Fig. The Brocks Hearing Loss Grades, which have been initially designed for youngsters receiving platinum based chemothera- peutics, are: Grade 0: Hearing thresholds <40 dB at all frequencies; Grade 1: Thresholds forty dB or larger at 8000 Hz; Grade 2: Thresholds 40 dB or larger at 4000 -8000 Hz; Grade 3: Thresholds forty dB or higher at 2000-8000 Hz; Grade four: Thresholds at forty dB or larger at one thousand-8000 Hz. Clinicopathological parameters, recurrence, locoregional and tematic review and meta-evaluation medicine and science in sports and exercise [url=http://www.noankhistoricalsociety.org/rxmed/buy-online-cordarone-no-rx/]order 100mg cordarone fast delivery[/url]. The Plasmodia life cycle consists of an intraerythrocytic stage of replica, which is answerable for lots of the pathological manifestations of the disease and the car for transmission by mosquitoes or blood transfusion. The organization encourages prevention efforts by way of its Quit for Life antismoking marketing campaign and the International Relay For Life.

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published.